Paracetamol
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Paracetamol (acetaminophen or para-hydroxyacetanilide) is a medication used to treat fever and mild to moderate pain. Common brand names include Tylenol and Panadol. See also [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracetamol]. | Paracetamol (acetaminophen or para-hydroxyacetanilide) is a medication used to treat fever and mild to moderate pain. Common brand names include Tylenol and Panadol. See also [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracetamol]. | ||
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Supporting the first mechanism, pharmacologically and in its side effects, paracetamol is close to classical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that act by inhibiting COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes and especially similar to selective COX-2 inhibitors.<ref name="R118">PMID:23719833</ref> Paracetamol inhibits [[prostaglandin]] synthesis by reducing the active form of COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. This occurs only when the concentration of <scene name='97/973110/Cv/3'>arachidonic acid</scene> and peroxides is low. Under these conditions, COX-2 is the predominant form of cyclooxygenase, which explains the apparent COX-2 selectivity of paracetamol. Under the conditions of inflammation, the concentration of peroxides is high, which counteracts the reducing effect of paracetamol. Accordingly, the anti-inflammatory action of paracetamol is slight.<ref name="R117">PMID:26921661</ref><ref name="R118">PMID:23719833</ref> The anti-inflammatory action of paracetamol (via COX inhibition) has also been found to primarily target the central nervous system and not peripheral areas of the body, explaining the lack of side effects associated with conventional NSAIDs such as gastric bleeding. | Supporting the first mechanism, pharmacologically and in its side effects, paracetamol is close to classical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that act by inhibiting COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes and especially similar to selective COX-2 inhibitors.<ref name="R118">PMID:23719833</ref> Paracetamol inhibits [[prostaglandin]] synthesis by reducing the active form of COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. This occurs only when the concentration of <scene name='97/973110/Cv/3'>arachidonic acid</scene> and peroxides is low. Under these conditions, COX-2 is the predominant form of cyclooxygenase, which explains the apparent COX-2 selectivity of paracetamol. Under the conditions of inflammation, the concentration of peroxides is high, which counteracts the reducing effect of paracetamol. Accordingly, the anti-inflammatory action of paracetamol is slight.<ref name="R117">PMID:26921661</ref><ref name="R118">PMID:23719833</ref> The anti-inflammatory action of paracetamol (via COX inhibition) has also been found to primarily target the central nervous system and not peripheral areas of the body, explaining the lack of side effects associated with conventional NSAIDs such as gastric bleeding. | ||
| - | The second mechanism centers on the paracetamol metabolite AM404. This metabolite has been detected in the brains of animals and cerebrospinal fluid of humans taking paracetamol.<ref name="R117">PMID:26921661</ref><ref name="R119">PMID:29238213</ref> Apparently, it is formed in the brain from another paracetamol metabolite <scene name='97/973110/4-aminophenol/1'>4-aminophenol</scene> by action of [[fatty acid amide hydrolase]].<ref name="R117">PMID:26921661</ref> AM404 is a weak agonist of [[cannabinoid receptors]] CB1 and CB2, an inhibitor of endocannabinoid transporter, and a potent activator of TRPV1 receptor.<ref name="R117">PMID:26921661</ref> This and other research indicate that cannabinoid system and TRPV1 may play an important role in the analgesic effect of paracetamol. See also [[Endocannabinoids]]. | + | The second mechanism centers on the paracetamol metabolite AM404. This metabolite has been detected in the brains of animals and cerebrospinal fluid of humans taking paracetamol.<ref name="R117">PMID:26921661</ref><ref name="R119">PMID:29238213</ref> Apparently, it is formed in the brain from another paracetamol metabolite <scene name='97/973110/4-aminophenol/1'>4-aminophenol</scene> by action of [[fatty acid amide hydrolase]].<ref name="R117">PMID:26921661</ref> AM404 is a weak agonist of [[cannabinoid receptors]] CB1 and CB2, an inhibitor of endocannabinoid transporter, and a potent activator of [[TRPV1]] receptor.<ref name="R117">PMID:26921661</ref> This and other research indicate that cannabinoid system and TRPV1 may play an important role in the analgesic effect of paracetamol. See also [[Endocannabinoids]]. |
| - | In 2018, Suemaru et al. found that, in mice, paracetamol exerts anticonvulsant effect by activation of TRPV1 receptors<ref name="R121">PMID:30007240</ref> and decrease in neuronal excitability by hyperpolarization of neurons.<ref name="R122">PMID:30601242</ref> The exact mechanism of the anticonvulsant effect of acetaminophen is not clear. According to Suemaru et al., acetaminophen and its active metabolite AM404 show a dose-dependent anticonvulsant activity against pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in mice.<ref name="R121">PMID:30007240</ref> | + | In 2018, Suemaru et al. found that, in mice, paracetamol exerts anticonvulsant effect by activation of [[TRPV1]] receptors<ref name="R121">PMID:30007240</ref> and decrease in neuronal excitability by hyperpolarization of neurons.<ref name="R122">PMID:30601242</ref> The exact mechanism of the anticonvulsant effect of acetaminophen is not clear. According to Suemaru et al., acetaminophen and its active metabolite AM404 show a dose-dependent anticonvulsant activity against pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in mice.<ref name="R121">PMID:30007240</ref> |
</StructureSection> | </StructureSection> | ||
== References == | == References == | ||
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References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Ghanem CI, Pérez MJ, Manautou JE, Mottino AD. Acetaminophen from liver to brain: New insights into drug pharmacological action and toxicity. Pharmacol Res. 2016 Jul;109:119-31. PMID:26921661 doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2016.02.020
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Graham GG, Davies MJ, Day RO, Mohamudally A, Scott KF. The modern pharmacology of paracetamol: therapeutic actions, mechanism of action, metabolism, toxicity and recent pharmacological findings. Inflammopharmacology. 2013 Jun;21(3):201-32. PMID:23719833 doi:10.1007/s10787-013-0172-x
- ↑ Sharma CV, Long JH, Shah S, Rahman J, Perrett D, Ayoub SS, Mehta V. First evidence of the conversion of paracetamol to AM404 in human cerebrospinal fluid. J Pain Res. 2017 Nov 28;10:2703-2709. PMID:29238213 doi:10.2147/JPR.S143500
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Suemaru K, Yoshikawa M, Aso H, Watanabe M. TRPV1 mediates the anticonvulsant effects of acetaminophen in mice. Epilepsy Res. 2018 Sep;145:153-159. PMID:30007240 doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2018.06.016
- ↑ Ray S, Salzer I, Kronschläger MT, Boehm S. The paracetamol metabolite N-acetylp-benzoquinone imine reduces excitability in Pain. 2019 Apr;160(4):954-964. PMID:30601242 doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001474
