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This Sandbox is Reserved from February 28 through September 1, 2022 for use in the course CH462 Biochemistry II taught by R. Jeremy Johnson at the Butler University, Indianapolis, USA. This reservation includes Sandbox Reserved 1700 through Sandbox Reserved 1729.

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Human Itch GPCR

1 G-Protein Coupled Receptors
2 Class A GCPRs
- 2.1 MRGPRs
  - 2.1.1 Agonists
    - 2.1.1.1 Cation
    - 2.1.1.2 Peptide
  - 2.1.2 Changes in MRGPRX2 from Standard Class A GPCRS
3 MRGPRX2 Signaling Pathway
4 Clinical Relevance

G-Protein Coupled Receptors

G-protein coupled receptors(GCPRs) are a large family of cell surface membrane receptors. Once bound to a wide variety of extracellular ligands, GCPRs undergo a conformational change and relay information to intracellular secondary messengers ^[1]. This G protein activation results in a cellular response dependent on the ligand bound and location of the GPCR in the body. GCPRs can be broken down into five families: the rhodopsin family (class A), the secretin family (class B), the adhesion family, the glutamate family (class C), and the frizzled/taste family (class F) ^[2]. All of the families have a similar transmembrane (TM) domain consisting of seven complexed with intracellular G proteins.

Class A GCPRs

Class A GPCRS or rhodopsin-like GPCRS are the largest and most studied type of GPCRS. Due to the diversity of these receptors they are found in many aspects of physiology. They are characterized by conserved motifs including DRY, PIF, Sodium Binding, and the CWxP ^[3]. A common example of a class A GPCRS is the β2AR receptor (PDB: 3sn6).

MRGPRs

The human itch GPCR, or Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor (MRGPR), is a Class A GPCR found in human sensory neurons and is responsible for the sensation of “itching” caused by skin irritation and diseases, insect bites, and hypersensitivity to certain drugs. MRGPR's are broken into 4 groups consisting of MRGPRX1, MRGPRX2, MRGPRX3, and MRGPRX4. MRGPRX4 is responsible for cholestatic itching, an intense itching felt during pregnancy on the soles of the feet and palms of hands. Meanwhile, MRGPRX2 regulates degranulation and hypersensitivity itch reactions ^[4]. These two, chiefly MRGPRX2, are often targets for drugs that result in mast cell degranulation and hypersensitivity side effects. In comparison to other Class A GPCRs, MRGPRX2 binds to an even wider range of ligands, including agonists such as cations and peptides.

Figure 1: Binding pocket of MRGPRX2 with Cortistatin. Two different binding pockets are present in MRGPRX2 and cortistatin interacts with both of them. ^[4]

Agonists

Cation

Figure 2: Structure of R-Zinc 3573. A cationic ligand selected for binding to MRGPRX2. This ligand was used as a probe for MRGPRX2 function and stabilization for structure determination. ^[5]

is a cation ligand that selectively binds to MRGPRX2. Its N-dimethyl is inserted into subpocket 1 of the binding cavity with aromatic amino acid residues Phe-170, Trp-243, and Phe-244. In this , N-dimethyl group on the ligand makes ion pairs with Asp-184 and Glu-164. The ligand is then stabilized by stacking its ring with Trp-248 and the Cys-168 to Cys-180 disulfide bond ^[5].

Peptide

is one of the peptide ligands that binds to MRGPRX2. Cortistatin-14 interacts with the binding pocket through an interaction in sub-pocket 1 between Lys-3 on the peptide and Glu-164 and Asp-184 on MRGPRX2 ^[4]. Additionally, there are hydrophobic interactions in sub-pocket 2 between the peptide and the binding pocket due to the large hydrophobic amino acids on Cortistatin-14.

Figure 2: Structure of Cortistatin-14 with resolved amino acids highlighted in green.^[5]

Changes in MRGPRX2 from Standard Class A GPCRS

Disulfide bonds

In common Class A GPCRs the disulfide bond associated with the initiation of signal transduction is located on the extracellular domain of the 7 transmembrane helices. ^[2] The of β2AR, a well studied Class A GPCR, occurs between transmembrane three (TM3) C106 and extracellular loop (EL) C191. This loop crosses through the middle of the extracellular domain, creating a barrier for bulkier substrates. In MRGPRX2, the is located between (TM4) C168 and (TM5) C180. This is a TM to TM disulfide bond as compared to a TM to EL disulfide bond seen in typical Class A GPCRs. This lack of interaction with the extracellular loop seen in MRGPRX2 causes the extracellular loop to flip on top of the TM4 and TM5 resulting in an open space for larger substrates to be able to interact with the receptor.

Toggle Switch

In β2AR, and other Class A GPCRs, a “toggle switch” of which limits the proximity of the TM helices as tryptophan sterically occludes tight interaction. This results in a deep binding pocket for ligand binding. In contrast, in MRGPRX2 Trp-286 is replaced by ^[4] ^[5]. Glycine is a much smaller amino acid and thus allows the helices to close the base of the binding pocket. This causes MRGPRX2 to have a much shallower binding site and allows more promiscuous ligand binding. This can be seen in a shorter distance from the toggle switch to the ligand in β2AR compared to MRGPRX2.

PIF Motif

MRGPRX2 also differs from typical Class A GPCRs based on substitutions in the PIF/connector motif, which acts as a microswitch. PIF plays a role in connecting the binding pocket to conformational rearrangements required for receptor activation^[6]. The PIF motif is located towards the base of the TM domains. In a Class A GPCR, like β2AR, the consists of Phe-211, Ile-121, and Phe-282 on TM domains 5, 3, and 6, respectively. However, for MRGPRX2, this is replaced with Leu-194 on TM5, Leu-117 on TM3, and Phe-232 on TM6.

DRY Motif

The DRY motif is a proton microswitch that is located near the G-protein binding site C-terminal on TM3 ^[6]. It acts as an ion lock when the GPCR is not being activated, preventing unnecessary activation of the G-proteins ^[3]. This motif is conserved in typical Class A GPCRS however, in MRGPRX2 it is only partially conserved. The arginine is conserved, while the aspartate is replaced by a glutamate and the tyrosine is replaced by a cysteine ^[5] ^[7].

Sodium Binding

The sodium site motif facilitates the conformational change of GPCR upon activation ^[8]. A sodium molecule sits in the middle of the TM7 helices where it is stabilized by conserved residues aspartate and glycine and 3 water molecules. In MRGPRX2 this motif is only partially conserved. The aspartate (TM2) is conserved while the glycine is replaced by a serine ^[5].

MRGPRX2 Signaling Pathway

MRGPRX2 mediates degranulation of mast cells through interaction with Gq and Gi subunits. Gq activation signals through Phospholipase C, which catalyzes the cleavage of Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate into diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP3). DAG is then able to increase the activity of protein kinase C. IP3 receptor is ligand gated calcium channel on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), that causes the release of calcium in cytoplasm. Subsequently, this results in muscle contraction and enzyme activation.

MRGPRX2 also interacts with Gi or G-protein inhibitory, which is structurally homologous to Gs (G-protein stimulatory), and will inhibit adenylyl cyclase and therefore lowers (cAMP). Gi is stimulated when somatostatin binds to receptor in pancreas.

Clinical Relevance

Figure 4: Structures of Dextromethorphan, Morphine, and Codeine.^[4]

Many drugs activate MRGPRX2 as a side effect that causes the sensation of itchiness ^[4]. Among these drugs are morphine, codeine, and dextromethorphan.These drugs have a similar structure to that of (R)- ZINC-3573, introducing the idea of a similar binding mechanism ^[9].

Due to mutations in key structural features of typical Class A GPCRS, MRGPRX2, it is able to bind to a variety of substrates that then mediate the signaling pathway for the sensation of itching.

References

↑ Thal, David M., et al. "Structural insights into G-protein-coupled receptor allostery." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 04 July 2018, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0259-z
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Zhang D, Zhao Q, Wu B. Structural Studies of G Protein-Coupled Receptors. Mol Cells. 2015 Oct;38(10):836-42. doi: 10.14348/molcells.2015.0263. Epub 2015, Oct 15. PMID:26467290 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.14348/molcells.2015.0263
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 Zhou Q, Yang D, Wu M, Guo Y, Guo W, Zhong L, Cai X, Dai A, Jang W, Shakhnovich EI, Liu ZJ, Stevens RC, Lambert NA, Babu MM, Wang MW, Zhao S. Common activation mechanism of class A GPCRs. Elife. 2019 Dec 19;8. pii: 50279. doi: 10.7554/eLife.50279. PMID:31855179 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.50279
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 ^4.3 ^4.4 ^4.5 Cao, Can, et al. "Structure, function and pharmacology of human itch GPCRs." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 17 November 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04126-6
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 ^5.3 ^5.4 ^5.5 Yang, Fan, et al. "Structure, function and pharmacology of human itch receptor complexes." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 17 November 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04077-y
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 Schonegge, Anne-Marie, et al. "Evolutionary action and structural basis of the allosteric switch controlling β2AR functional selectivity." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 18 December 2017, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02257-x
↑ Sandoval, A., et al. "The Molecular Switching Mechanism at the Conserved D(E)RY Motif in Class-A GPCRs." Biophysical journal, 111(1), 79-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2016.06.004
↑ Katritch V, Fenalti G, Abola EE, Roth BL, Cherezov V, Stevens RC. Allosteric sodium in class A GPCR signaling. Trends Biochem Sci. 2014 May;39(5):233-44. doi: 10.1016/j.tibs.2014.03.002. Epub , 2014 Apr 21. PMID:24767681 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tibs.2014.03.002
↑ Babina, M., et al. "MRGPRX2 Is the Codeine Receptor of Human Skin Mast Cells: Desensitization through β-Arrestin and Lack of Correlation with the FcεRI Pathway." Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 141(6), 1286-1296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2020.09.017

Retrieved from "http://52.214.119.220/wiki/index.php/Sandbox_Reserved_1722"

@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 == G-Protein Coupled Receptors ==
-[https://proteopedia.org/wiki/index.php/G_protein-coupled_receptors G-protein coupled receptors]](GCPRs) are a large family of cell surface membrane proteins. Once bound to a wide variety of extracellular ligands, GCPRs undergo a conformational change and relay information to intracellular secondary messengers <ref name="Thal">Thal, David M., et al. "Structural insights into G-protein-coupled receptor allostery." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 04 July 2018, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0259-z</ref>. This G protein activation results in a cellular response dependent on the ligand bound and location of the GPCR in the body. GCPRs can be broken down into five families: the rhodopsin family (class A, 701 members), the secretin family (class B, 15 members), the adhesion family (24 members), the glutamate family (class C, 15 members), and the frizzled/taste family (class F, 24 members) <ref name="Zhang">PMID: 26467290</ref>. All of the families have a similar transmembrane (TM) domain consisting of seven <scene name='90/904328/7tm_domain_pt_4/1'>a-helices</scene> complexed with intracellular G proteins.
+[https://proteopedia.org/wiki/index.php/G_protein-coupled_receptors G-protein coupled receptors](GCPRs) are a large family of cell surface membrane receptors. Once bound to a wide variety of extracellular ligands, GCPRs undergo a conformational change and relay information to intracellular secondary messengers <ref name="Thal">Thal, David M., et al. "Structural insights into G-protein-coupled receptor allostery." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 04 July 2018, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0259-z</ref>. This G protein activation results in a cellular response dependent on the ligand bound and location of the GPCR in the body. GCPRs can be broken down into five families: the rhodopsin family (class A), the secretin family (class B), the adhesion family, the glutamate family (class C), and the frizzled/taste family (class F) <ref name="Zhang">PMID: 26467290</ref>. All of the families have a similar transmembrane (TM) domain consisting of seven <scene name='90/904328/7tm_domain_pt_4/1'>α-helices</scene> complexed with intracellular G proteins.
 == Class A GCPRs ==
@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 The human itch GPCR, or Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor (MRGPR), is a Class A GPCR found in human sensory neurons and is responsible for the sensation of “itching” caused by skin irritation and diseases, insect bites, and hypersensitivity to certain drugs. MRGPR's are broken into 4 groups consisting of MRGPRX1, MRGPRX2, MRGPRX3, and MRGPRX4. MRGPRX4 is responsible for cholestatic itching, an intense itching felt during pregnancy on the soles of the feet and palms of hands. Meanwhile, MRGPRX2 regulates [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degranulation degranulation] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersensitivity#:~:text=Hypersensitivity%20(also%20called%20hypersensitivity%20reaction,may%20be%20damaging%20and%20uncomfortable. hypersensitivity] itch reactions <ref name="Cao">Cao, Can, et al. "Structure, function and pharmacology of human itch GPCRs." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 17 November 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04126-6</ref>. These two, chiefly MRGPRX2, are often targets for drugs that result in mast cell degranulation and hypersensitivity side effects. In comparison to other Class A GPCRs, MRGPRX2 binds to an even wider range of ligands, including agonists such as cations and peptides.
 [[Image:Electro.PNG|250px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Binding pocket of MRGPRX2 with Cortistatin. Two different binding pockets are present in MRGPRX2 and cortistatin interacts with both of them. <ref name="Cao"/>]]
 ==== Agonists ====
 ===== Cation =====
 [[Image: Zinc.PNG|250px|right|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Structure of R-Zinc 3573. A cationic ligand selected for binding to MRGPRX2. This ligand was used as a probe for MRGPRX2 function and stabilization for structure determination. <ref name="Yang">Yang, Fan, et al. "Structure, function and pharmacology of human itch receptor complexes." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 17 November 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04077-y</ref>]] <scene name='90/904328/Zinc_pt_2/1'>(R)-Zinc-3573</scene> is a cation ligand that selectively binds to MRGPRX2. Its N-dimethyl is inserted into subpocket 1 of the binding cavity with aromatic amino acid residues Phe-170, Trp-243, and Phe-244. In this <scene name='90/904328/Ziz_pt_2/1'>cavity</scene>, N-dimethyl group on the ligand makes ion pairs with Asp-184 and Glu-164. The ligand is then stabilized by stacking its ring with Trp-248 and the Cys-168 to Cys-180 disulfide bond <ref name="Yang">Yang, Fan, et al. "Structure, function and pharmacology of human itch receptor complexes." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 17 November 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04077-y</ref>.
 ===== Peptide =====
 <scene name='90/904328/Overview_x2_c_pt_2/1'>Cortistatin-14</scene> is one of the peptide ligands that binds to MRGPRX2. Cortistatin-14 interacts with the binding pocket through an <scene name='90/904328/Zic14_pt_2/1'>electrostatic</scene> interaction in sub-pocket 1 between Lys-3 on the peptide and Glu-164 and Asp-184 on MRGPRX2 <ref name="Cao"/>. Additionally, there are hydrophobic interactions in sub-pocket 2 between the peptide and the binding pocket due to the large hydrophobic amino acids on Cortistatin-14. [[Image: Peptide.PNG|250px|left|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Structure of Cortistatin-14 with resolved amino acids highlighted in green.<ref name="Yang">Yang, Fan, et al. "Structure, function and pharmacology of human itch receptor complexes." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 17 November 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04077-y</ref>]]
@@ Line 34: / Line 35: @@
 ===== ''Toggle Switch'' =====
-In β2AR, and other Class A GPCRs, there is a what is known as a “toggle switch” <scene name='90/904328/B2artoggleswitchyes_pt_3/1'>Trp-286</scene>  which puts a limit on how close the TM helices can get to each other due to tryptophan being a very large, bulky amino acid. This results in a deep binding pocket. In contrast, in MRGPRX2 Trp-286 is replaced by <scene name='90/904328/Toggle_switch_gly_pt_2/1'>Gly-236</scene> <ref name="Cao"/> <ref name="Yang"/>. Glycine is a much smaller amino acid and thus allows the helices to close the base of the binding pocket. This causes MRGPRX2 to have a very shallow binding site and consequently allows an even greater number of ligands to be able to bind. This can be seen in a shorter distance from the shorter distance from the ligand in β2AR compared to MRGPRX2.
+In β2AR, and other Class A GPCRs, a “toggle switch” of <scene name='90/904328/B2artoggleswitchyes_pt_3/1'>Trp-286</scene> which limits the proximity of the TM helices as tryptophan sterically occludes tight interaction. This results in a deep binding pocket for ligand binding. In contrast, in MRGPRX2 Trp-286 is replaced by <scene name='90/904328/Toggle_switch_gly_pt_2/1'>Gly-236</scene> <ref name="Cao"/> <ref name="Yang"/>. Glycine is a much smaller amino acid and thus allows the helices to close the base of the binding pocket. This causes MRGPRX2 to have a much shallower binding site and allows more promiscuous ligand binding. This can be seen in a shorter distance from the toggle switch to the ligand in β2AR compared to MRGPRX2.
 ===== ''PIF Motif'' =====
-Another motif that MRGPRX2 differs from typical Class A GPCRs is the PIF/connector motif, which acts as a microswitch. PIF plays a role in connecting the binding pocket to conformational rearrangements required for receptor activation<ref name="Schonegge">Schonegge, Anne-Marie, et al. "Evolutionary action and structural basis of the allosteric switch controlling β2AR functional selectivity." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 18 December 2017, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02257-x</ref>. This motif is located towards the base of the TM domains. In a Class A GPCR, like β2AR, the <scene name='90/904328/B2arpif_pt_2/1'>PIF motif</scene> consists of Phe-211, Ile-121, and Phe-282 on TM domains 5, 3, and 6, respectively. However, for MRGPRX2, this <scene name='90/904328/Mxpifnolabel_pt_2/1'>motif</scene> is replaced with Leu-194 on TM5, Leu-117 on TM3, and Phe-232 on TM6.
+MRGPRX2 also differs from typical Class A GPCRs based on substitutions in the PIF/connector motif, which acts as a microswitch. PIF plays a role in connecting the binding pocket to conformational rearrangements required for receptor activation<ref name="Schonegge">Schonegge, Anne-Marie, et al. "Evolutionary action and structural basis of the allosteric switch controlling β2AR functional selectivity." Nature, Nature Publishing Group, 18 December 2017, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02257-x</ref>. The PIF motif is located towards the base of the TM domains. In a Class A GPCR, like β2AR, the <scene name='90/904328/B2arpif_pt_2/1'>PIF motif</scene> consists of Phe-211, Ile-121, and Phe-282 on TM domains 5, 3, and 6, respectively. However, for MRGPRX2, this <scene name='90/904328/Mxpifnolabel_pt_2/1'>motif</scene> is replaced with Leu-194 on TM5, Leu-117 on TM3, and Phe-232 on TM6.
 ===== ''DRY Motif'' =====
@@ Line 55: / Line 56: @@
+== Clinical Relevance ==
-== Clinical Relevance ==
 [[Image: Drugs.PNG|400px|right|thumb|'''Figure 4''': Structures of Dextromethorphan, Morphine, and Codeine.<ref name="Cao"/>]]
-Many drugs have been linked to the activation of MRGPRX2 as a side effect that causes the sensation of itchiness. Among these drugs are morphine, codeine, and dextromethorphan.These drugs have a similar structure to that of (R)- ZINC-3573, introducing the idea of a similar binding mechanism. <ref name="Babina"> Babina, M., et al. "MRGPRX2 Is the Codeine Receptor of Human Skin Mast Cells: Desensitization through β-Arrestin and Lack of Correlation with the FcεRI Pathway." Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 141(6), 1286-1296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2020.09.017</ref>
+Many drugs activate MRGPRX2 as a side effect that causes the sensation of itchiness <ref name="Cao"/>. Among these drugs are morphine, codeine, and dextromethorphan.These drugs have a similar structure to that of (R)- ZINC-3573, introducing the idea of a similar binding mechanism <ref name="Babina"> Babina, M., et al. "MRGPRX2 Is the Codeine Receptor of Human Skin Mast Cells: Desensitization through β-Arrestin and Lack of Correlation with the FcεRI Pathway." Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 141(6), 1286-1296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2020.09.017</ref>.
 Due to mutations in key structural features of typical Class A GPCRS, MRGPRX2, it is  able to bind to a variety of substrates that then mediate the signaling pathway for the sensation of itching.