Paracetamol

Paracetamol (acetaminophen or para-hydroxyacetanilide) is a medication used to treat fever and mild to moderate pain. Common brand names include Tylenol and Panadol. See also [1].

Paracetamol appears to exert its effects through two mechanisms: the inhibition of cyclooxygenase and actions of its metabolite N-arachidonoylphenolamine (AM404).[117]

Supporting the first mechanism, pharmacologically and in its side effects, paracetamol is close to classical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that act by inhibiting COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes and especially similar to selective COX-2 inhibitors.[118] Paracetamol inhibits prostaglandin synthesis by reducing the active form of COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. This occurs only when the concentration of arachidonic acid and peroxides is low. Under these conditions, COX-2 is the predominant form of cyclooxygenase, which explains the apparent COX-2 selectivity of paracetamol. Under the conditions of inflammation, the concentration of peroxides is high, which counteracts the reducing effect of paracetamol. Accordingly, the anti-inflammatory action of paracetamol is slight.[117][118] The anti-inflammatory action of paracetamol (via COX inhibition) has also been found to primarily target the central nervous system and not peripheral areas of the body, explaining the lack of side effects associated with conventional NSAIDs such as gastric bleeding.

The second mechanism centers on the paracetamol metabolite AM404. This metabolite has been detected in the brains of animals and cerebrospinal fluid of humans taking paracetamol.[117][119] Apparently, it is formed in the brain from another paracetamol metabolite 4-aminophenol by action of fatty acid amide hydrolase.[117] AM404 is a weak agonist of cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, an inhibitor of endocannabinoid transporter, and a potent activator of TRPV1 receptor.[117] This and other research indicate that cannabinoid system and TRPV1 may play an important role in the analgesic effect of paracetamol.

In 2018, Suemaru et al. found that, in mice, paracetamol exerts anticonvulsant effect by activation of TRPV1 receptors[121] and decrease in neuronal excitability by hyperpolarization of neurons.[122] The exact mechanism of the anticonvulsant effect of acetaminophen is not clear. According to Suemaru et al., acetaminophen and its active metabolite AM404 show a dose-dependent anticonvulsant activity against pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in mice.[121]