3b9f

Structural highlights

Disease

[THRB_HUMAN] Defects in F2 are the cause of factor II deficiency (FA2D) [MIM:613679]. It is a very rare blood coagulation disorder characterized by mucocutaneous bleeding symptoms. The severity of the bleeding manifestations correlates with blood factor II levels.^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]} Genetic variations in F2 may be a cause of susceptibility to ischemic stroke (ISCHSTR) [MIM:601367]; also known as cerebrovascular accident or cerebral infarction. A stroke is an acute neurologic event leading to death of neural tissue of the brain and resulting in loss of motor, sensory and/or cognitive function. Ischemic strokes, resulting from vascular occlusion, is considered to be a highly complex disease consisting of a group of heterogeneous disorders with multiple genetic and environmental risk factors.^[13] Defects in F2 are the cause of thrombophilia due to thrombin defect (THPH1) [MIM:188050]. It is a multifactorial disorder of hemostasis characterized by abnormal platelet aggregation in response to various agents and recurrent thrombi formation. Note=A common genetic variation in the 3-prime untranslated region of the prothrombin gene is associated with elevated plasma prothrombin levels and an increased risk of venous thrombosis. Defects in F2 are associated with susceptibility to pregnancy loss, recurrent, type 2 (RPRGL2) [MIM:614390]. A common complication of pregnancy, resulting in spontaneous abortion before the fetus has reached viability. The term includes all miscarriages from the time of conception until 24 weeks of gestation. Recurrent pregnancy loss is defined as 3 or more consecutive spontaneous abortions.^[14]

Function

[THRB_HUMAN] Thrombin, which cleaves bonds after Arg and Lys, converts fibrinogen to fibrin and activates factors V, VII, VIII, XIII, and, in complex with thrombomodulin, protein C. Functions in blood homeostasis, inflammation and wound healing.^[15] [IPSP_HUMAN] Heparin-dependent serine protease inhibitor acting in body fluids and secretions. Inactivates serine proteases by binding irreversibly to their serine activation site. Involved in the regulation of intravascular and extravascular proteolytic activities. Plays hemostatic roles in the blood plasma. Acts as a procoagulant and proinflammatory factor by inhibiting the anticoagulant activated protein C factor as well as the generation of activated protein C factor by the thrombin/thrombomodulin complex. Acts as an anticoagulant factor by inhibiting blood coagulation factors like prothrombin, factor XI, factor Xa, plasma kallikrein and fibrinolytic enzymes such as tissue- and urinary-type plasminogen activators. In seminal plasma, inactivates several serine proteases implicated in the reproductive system. Inhibits the serpin acrosin; indirectly protects component of the male genital tract from being degraded by excessive released acrosin. Inhibits tissue-and urinary-type plasminogen activator, prostate-specific antigen and kallikrein activities; has a control on the sperm motility and fertilization. Inhibits the activated protein C-catalyzed degradation of SEMG1 and SEMG2; regulates the degradation of semenogelin during the process of transfer of spermatozoa from the male reproductive tract into the female tract. In urine, inhibits urinary-type plasminogen activator and kallikrein activities. Inactivates membrane-anchored serine proteases activities such as MPRSS7 and TMPRSS11E. Inhibits urinary-type plasminogen activator-dependent tumor cell invasion and metastasis. May also play a non-inhibitory role in seminal plasma and urine as a hydrophobic hormone carrier by its binding to retinoic acid.^{[16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33]}

Evolutionary Conservation

Check, as determined by ConSurfDB. You may read the explanation of the method and the full data available from ConSurf.

See Also

• Thrombin

References

1. ↑ Wang W, Fu Q, Zhou R, Wu W, Ding Q, Hu Y, Wang X, Wang H, Wang Z. Prothrombin Shanghai: hypoprothrombinaemia caused by substitution of Gla29 by Gly. Haemophilia. 2004 Jan;10(1):94-7. PMID:14962227
2. ↑ Board PG, Shaw DC. Determination of the amino acid substitution in human prothrombin type 3 (157 Glu leads to Lys) and the localization of a third thrombin cleavage site. Br J Haematol. 1983 Jun;54(2):245-54. PMID:6405779
3. ↑ Rabiet MJ, Furie BC, Furie B. Molecular defect of prothrombin Barcelona. Substitution of cysteine for arginine at residue 273. J Biol Chem. 1986 Nov 15;261(32):15045-8. PMID:3771562
4. ↑ Miyata T, Morita T, Inomoto T, Kawauchi S, Shirakami A, Iwanaga S. Prothrombin Tokushima, a replacement of arginine-418 by tryptophan that impairs the fibrinogen clotting activity of derived thrombin Tokushima. Biochemistry. 1987 Feb 24;26(4):1117-22. PMID:3567158
5. ↑ Inomoto T, Shirakami A, Kawauchi S, Shigekiyo T, Saito S, Miyoshi K, Morita T, Iwanaga S. Prothrombin Tokushima: characterization of dysfunctional thrombin derived from a variant of human prothrombin. Blood. 1987 Feb;69(2):565-9. PMID:3801671
6. ↑ Henriksen RA, Mann KG. Identification of the primary structural defect in the dysthrombin thrombin Quick I: substitution of cysteine for arginine-382. Biochemistry. 1988 Dec 27;27(26):9160-5. PMID:3242619
7. ↑ Henriksen RA, Mann KG. Substitution of valine for glycine-558 in the congenital dysthrombin thrombin Quick II alters primary substrate specificity. Biochemistry. 1989 Mar 7;28(5):2078-82. PMID:2719946
8. ↑ Miyata T, Aruga R, Umeyama H, Bezeaud A, Guillin MC, Iwanaga S. Prothrombin Salakta: substitution of glutamic acid-466 by alanine reduces the fibrinogen clotting activity and the esterase activity. Biochemistry. 1992 Aug 25;31(33):7457-62. PMID:1354985
9. ↑ Morishita E, Saito M, Kumabashiri I, Asakura H, Matsuda T, Yamaguchi K. Prothrombin Himi: a compound heterozygote for two dysfunctional prothrombin molecules (Met-337-->Thr and Arg-388-->His). Blood. 1992 Nov 1;80(9):2275-80. PMID:1421398
10. ↑ Iwahana H, Yoshimoto K, Shigekiyo T, Shirakami A, Saito S, Itakura M. Detection of a single base substitution of the gene for prothrombin Tokushima. The application of PCR-SSCP for the genetic and molecular analysis of dysprothrombinemia. Int J Hematol. 1992 Feb;55(1):93-100. PMID:1349838
11. ↑ James HL, Kim DJ, Zheng DQ, Girolami A. Prothrombin Padua I: incomplete activation due to an amino acid substitution at a factor Xa cleavage site. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1994 Oct;5(5):841-4. PMID:7865694
12. ↑ Degen SJ, McDowell SA, Sparks LM, Scharrer I. Prothrombin Frankfurt: a dysfunctional prothrombin characterized by substitution of Glu-466 by Ala. Thromb Haemost. 1995 Feb;73(2):203-9. PMID:7792730
13. ↑ Casas JP, Hingorani AD, Bautista LE, Sharma P. Meta-analysis of genetic studies in ischemic stroke: thirty-two genes involving approximately 18,000 cases and 58,000 controls. Arch Neurol. 2004 Nov;61(11):1652-61. PMID:15534175 doi:61/11/1652
14. ↑ Pihusch R, Buchholz T, Lohse P, Rubsamen H, Rogenhofer N, Hasbargen U, Hiller E, Thaler CJ. Thrombophilic gene mutations and recurrent spontaneous abortion: prothrombin mutation increases the risk in the first trimester. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2001 Aug;46(2):124-31. PMID:11506076
15. ↑ Glenn KC, Frost GH, Bergmann JS, Carney DH. Synthetic peptides bind to high-affinity thrombin receptors and modulate thrombin mitogenesis. Pept Res. 1988 Nov-Dec;1(2):65-73. PMID:2856554
16. ↑ Suzuki K, Nishioka J, Kusumoto H, Hashimoto S. Mechanism of inhibition of activated protein C by protein C inhibitor. J Biochem. 1984 Jan;95(1):187-95. PMID:6323392
17. ↑ Stief TW, Radtke KP, Heimburger N. Inhibition of urokinase by protein C-inhibitor (PCI). Evidence for identity of PCI and plasminogen activator inhibitor 3. Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler. 1987 Oct;368(10):1427-33. PMID:3501295
18. ↑ Meijers JC, Kanters DH, Vlooswijk RA, van Erp HE, Hessing M, Bouma BN. Inactivation of human plasma kallikrein and factor XIa by protein C inhibitor. Biochemistry. 1988 Jun 14;27(12):4231-7. PMID:2844223
19. ↑ Espana F, Gilabert J, Estelles A, Romeu A, Aznar J, Cabo A. Functionally active protein C inhibitor/plasminogen activator inhibitor-3 (PCI/PAI-3) is secreted in seminal vesicles, occurs at high concentrations in human seminal plasma and complexes with prostate-specific antigen. Thromb Res. 1991 Nov 1;64(3):309-20. PMID:1725227
20. ↑ Zheng X, Geiger M, Ecke S, Bielek E, Donner P, Eberspacher U, Schleuning WD, Binder BR. Inhibition of acrosin by protein C inhibitor and localization of protein C inhibitor to spermatozoa. Am J Physiol. 1994 Aug;267(2 Pt 1):C466-72. PMID:7521127
21. ↑ Cooper ST, Whinna HC, Jackson TP, Boyd JM, Church FC. Intermolecular interactions between protein C inhibitor and coagulation proteases. Biochemistry. 1995 Oct 10;34(40):12991-7. PMID:7548057
22. ↑ Espana F, Fink E, Sanchez-Cuenca J, Gilabert J, Estelles A, Witzgall K. Complexes of tissue kallikrein with protein C inhibitor in human semen and urine. Eur J Biochem. 1995 Dec 1;234(2):641-9. PMID:8536714
23. ↑ Kise H, Nishioka J, Kawamura J, Suzuki K. Characterization of semenogelin II and its molecular interaction with prostate-specific antigen and protein C inhibitor. Eur J Biochem. 1996 May 15;238(1):88-96. PMID:8665956
24. ↑ Elisen MG, von dem Borne PA, Bouma BN, Meijers JC. Protein C inhibitor acts as a procoagulant by inhibiting the thrombomodulin-induced activation of protein C in human plasma. Blood. 1998 Mar 1;91(5):1542-7. PMID:9473218
25. ↑ Elisen MG, van Kooij RJ, Nolte MA, Marquart JA, Lock TM, Bouma BN, Meijers JC. Protein C inhibitor may modulate human sperm-oocyte interactions. Biol Reprod. 1998 Mar;58(3):670-7. PMID:9510955
26. ↑ Nishioka J, Ning M, Hayashi T, Suzuki K. Protein C inhibitor secreted from activated platelets efficiently inhibits activated protein C on phosphatidylethanolamine of platelet membrane and microvesicles. J Biol Chem. 1998 May 1;273(18):11281-7. PMID:9556620
27. ↑ He S, Lin YL, Liu YX. Functionally inactive protein C inhibitor in seminal plasma may be associated with infertility. Mol Hum Reprod. 1999 Jun;5(6):513-9. PMID:10340997
28. ↑ Jerabek I, Zechmeister-Machhart M, Binder BR, Geiger M. Binding of retinoic acid by the inhibitory serpin protein C inhibitor. Eur J Biochem. 2001 Nov;268(22):5989-96. PMID:11722589
29. ↑ Wakita T, Hayashi T, Nishioka J, Tamaru H, Akita N, Asanuma K, Kamada H, Gabazza EC, Ido M, Kawamura J, Suzuki K. Regulation of carcinoma cell invasion by protein C inhibitor whose expression is decreased in renal cell carcinoma. Int J Cancer. 2004 Feb 10;108(4):516-23. PMID:14696115 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.11594
30. ↑ Hobson JP, Netzel-Arnett S, Szabo R, Rehault SM, Church FC, Strickland DK, Lawrence DA, Antalis TM, Bugge TH. Mouse DESC1 is located within a cluster of seven DESC1-like genes and encodes a type II transmembrane serine protease that forms serpin inhibitory complexes. J Biol Chem. 2004 Nov 5;279(45):46981-94. Epub 2004 Aug 24. PMID:15328353 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M403299200
31. ↑ Hayashi T, Nishioka J, Kamada H, Asanuma K, Kondo H, Gabazza EC, Ido M, Suzuki K. Characterization of a novel human protein C inhibitor (PCI) gene transgenic mouse useful for studying the role of PCI in physiological and pathological conditions. J Thromb Haemost. 2004 Jun;2(6):949-61. PMID:15140131 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2004.00733.x
32. ↑ Szabo R, Netzel-Arnett S, Hobson JP, Antalis TM, Bugge TH. Matriptase-3 is a novel phylogenetically preserved membrane-anchored serine protease with broad serpin reactivity. Biochem J. 2005 Aug 15;390(Pt 1):231-42. PMID:15853774 doi:BJ20050299
33. ↑ Sun W, Parry S, Panico M, Morris HR, Kjellberg M, Engstrom A, Dell A, Schedin-Weiss S. N-glycans and the N terminus of protein C inhibitor affect the cofactor-enhanced rates of thrombin inhibition. J Biol Chem. 2008 Jul 4;283(27):18601-11. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M800608200. Epub 2008 , May 8. PMID:18467335 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M800608200
34. ↑ Li W, Adams TE, Nangalia J, Esmon CT, Huntington JA. Molecular basis of thrombin recognition by protein C inhibitor revealed by the 1.6-A structure of the heparin-bridged complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Mar 25;105(12):4661-6. Epub 2008 Mar 24. PMID:18362344