This page is continuation of CRISPR-Cas9
Crystal Structure of Staphylococcus aureus Cas9[1]
The RNA-guided DNA endonuclease Cas9 cleaves double-stranded DNA targets with a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) and complementarity to the guide RNA. Recently, we harnessed Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9), which is significantly smaller than Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9), to facilitate efficient in vivo genome editing. Here, the crystal structures of SaCas9 in complex with a single guide RNA (sgRNA) and its double stranded DNA targets, containing the 5'-TTGAAT-3' PAM and the 5'-TTGGGT-3' PAM, at 2.6 and 2.7 A˚ resolutions, respectively, were reported. The structures revealed the mechanism of the relaxed recognition of the 5'-NNGRRT-3' PAM by SaCas9. A structural comparison of SaCas9 with SpCas9 highlighted both structural conservation and divergence, explaining their distinct PAM specificities and orthologous sgRNA recognition.
Overall Structure of the SaCas9–sgRNA–Target DNA Complex
The (residues 1–1053; N580A/C946A) in complex with a 73-nucleotide (nt) sgRNA, a 28-nt target DNA strand and an 8-nt non-target DNA strand, containing the 5'-TTGAAT-3' PAM was solved (5czz). SaCas9 adopts a consisting of a REC lobe (residues 41–425) and a NUC lobe (residues 1–40 and 435–1053). The by an arginine-rich bridge helix (residues 41–73) and a linker loop (residues 426–434). The the RuvC (residues 1–40, 435–480 and 650–774), HNH (residues 520–628), WED (residues 788–909), and PI (residues 910–1053) domains. The can be divided into a Topoisomerase-homology (TOPO) domain and a C-terminal domain (CTD). The three separate motifs (RuvC-I–III) and interacts with the HNH and PI domains. The is connected to RuvC-II and RuvC-III by the L1 (residues 481–519) and L2 (residues 629–649) linker regions, respectively. The active site of the HNH domain is distant from the cleavage site in the target DNA strand (the phosphodiester linkage between dC3 and dA4), indicating that the present structure represents the inactive state. The WED and RuvC domains are connected by a loop (residues 775–787). Previous structural studies revealed that SpCas9 undergoes conformational rearrangements upon guide RNA binding, to form the central channel between the REC and NUC lobes. In the absence of the guide RNA, SpCas9 and AnCas9 adopt a closed conformation, where the active site of the HNH domain is covered by the RuvC domain. In contrast, the ternary and quaternary complex structures of SpCas9 adopt an open conformation and have the central channel, which accommodates the guide RNA–target DNA heteroduplex (referred to as the guide:target heteroduplex). The present , suggesting that the guide RNA-induced conformational activation is conserved between SaCas9 and SpCas9. A structural comparison between SaCas9 and SpCas9 revealed that, although their overall architectures are similar, there are notable differences in their REC, WED, and PI domains, as described in detail below, thereby explaining the significant sequence and size differences of the two Cas9 orthologs.
Structure of the sgRNA–Target DNA Complex
The SaCas9 sgRNA consists of the guide region (G1–C20),repeat region (G21–G34), tetraloop (G35–A38), anti-repeat region (C39–C54), stem loop 1 (A56–G68), and single-stranded linker (U69–U73), with A55 connecting the anti-repeat region and stem loop 1. U73 at the 3' end is disordered in the present structure. The guide region (G1–C20) and the target DNA strand (dG1–dC20) form the , whereas the target DNA strand (dC(8)–dA(1)) and the non-target DNA strand (dT1*–dG8*) form a (referred to as the PAM duplex). The repeat (G21–G34) and anti-repeat (C39–C54) regions form a distorted duplex (referred to as the ) via 13 Watson-Crick base pairs. is formed via three Watson-Crick base pairs (G57:C67–C59:G65) and two non-canonical base pairs (A56:G68 and A60:A63). U64 does not base pair with A60 and is flipped out of the stem loop. The N1 and N6 of A63 hydrogen bond with the 2'-OH and N3 of A60, respectively. G68 stacks with G57:C67, with the G68 N2 interacting with the backbone phosphate group between A55 and A56. A55 adopts the syn conformation, and its adenine base stacks with U69. In addition, the N1 of A55 hydrogen bonds with the 2'-OH of G68, thus stabilizing the basal region of stem loop 1. An adenosine residue immediately after the repeat:anti-repeat duplex is highly conserved among CRISPR-Cas9 systems, and the equivalent adenosine in the SpCas9 sgRNA, A51, also adopts the syn conformation, suggesting that these adenosine residues play conserved key roles in connecting the repeat:anti-repeat duplex and stem loop 1.
Recognition Mechanism of the Guide:Target Heteroduplex
The formed between the REC and NUC lobes. The sugar-phosphate backbone of the PAM-distal region (A3–U6) of the sgRNA interacts with the . In SpCas9 and SaCas9, the RNA–DNA base pairing in the 8 bp PAM-proximal ‘‘seed’’ region in the guide:target heteroduplex is critical for Cas9-catalyzed DNA cleavage. Consistent with this, the phosphate backbone of the sgRNA seed region (C13–C20) is extensively recognized , as in the case of SpCas9. These structural observations explain the RNA-guided DNA targeting mechanism of SaCas9. The C-terminal region of the REC lobe interacts with the PAM-distal region of the heteroduplex, whereas the N-terminal region of the REC lobe interacts with the repeat:anti-repeat duplex and the PAM-proximal region of the heteroduplex. Notably, the C-terminal region of the REC lobe of SaCas9 shares structural similarity with those of SpCas9 (PDB: 4un3, 26% identity, rmsd of 1.9 A˚ for 177 equivalent Ca atoms) and AnCas9 (PDB: 4oge, 16% identity, rmsd of 3.2 A˚ for 167 equivalent Ca atoms). These structural findings suggested that the Cas9 orthologs recognize the PAM-distal region of the guide:target heteroduplex in a similar manner.
Recognition Mechanism of the sgRNA Scaffold
The . Consistent with our data showing that the distorted repeat:anti-repeat duplex is critical for Cas9-catalyzed DNA cleavage, the . The 2'-OH of C30 hydrogen bonds with , and the backbone phosphate groups of U31, C45, and U46 interact with , respectively. These structural observations explain the structure-dependent recognition of the repeat:anti-repeat duplex by SaCas9. Stem loop 1 is recognized by the bridge helix and the REC lobe. The phosphate backbone of interacts with the bridge helix () and the REC lobe (). The . The flipped-out , respectively. A55 is extensively recognized by the phosphate lock loop. The , respectively. . The phosphate backbone of the , and the nucleobase of on the bridge helix.
Recognition Mechanism of the 5'-NNGRRT-3' PAM
SaCas9 recognizes the 5'-NNGRRN-3' PAM, with a preference for a thymine base at the 6th position, which is distinct from the 5'-NGG-3' PAM of SpCas9. In the present structures containing either the or the , the PAM duplex is sandwiched between the WED and PI domains, and the PAM in the non-target DNA strand is read from the major groove side by the PI domain. dT1* and dT2* do not directly contact the protein. Consistent with the observed requirement for the 3rd G in the 5'-NNGRRT-3' PAM, the O6 and N7 of dG3* form bidentate hydrogen bonds with the side chain of Arg1015, which is anchored via salt bridges with Glu993 in both complexes. In the 5'-TTGAAT-3' PAM complex, the , respectively. In addition, the N6 of dA5* forms a water-mediated hydrogen bond with Asn985. Similarly, in the 5'-TTGGGT-3' PAM complex, the , respectively. The O6 of dG5* forms a water-mediated hydrogen bond with Asn985. These structural features explain the ability of SaCas9 to recognize the purine nucleotides at positions 4 and 5 in the 5'-NNGRRT-3' PAM. The O4 of dT6* hydrogen bonds with Arg991, explaining the preference of SaCas9 for the 6th T in the 5'-NNGRRT-3' PAM. Single alanine mutations of these PAM-interacting residues reduced the cleavage activity in vivo, and double mutations abolished the activity, confirming the importance of Asn985, Asn986, Arg991, Glu993, and Arg1015 for PAM recognition. In addition, .
Mechanism of Target DNA Unwinding
In SpCas9, Glu1108 and Ser1109, in the phosphate lock loop, hydrogen bond with the phosphate group between dA(1) and dT1 in the target DNA strand (referred to as the +1 phosphate), thereby contributing to the target DNA unwinding. The present structure revealed that SaCas9 also has the phosphate lock loop, although it shares limited sequence similarity to that of SpCas9. In SaCas9, the +1 phosphate between dA(1) and dG1, in the target DNA strand, hydrogen bonds with the main-chain amide groups of Asp786 and Thr787 and the side chain of Thr787 in the phosphate lock loop. These interactions result in the rotation of the +1 phosphate, thereby facilitating base-pairing between dG1 in the target DNA strand and C20 in the sgRNA. Indeed, the SaCas9 T787A mutant showed reduced DNA cleavage activity (Figure 5C), confirming the functional significance of Thr787 in the phosphate lock loop. These observations indicated the conserved molecular mechanism of target DNA unwinding in SaCas9 and SpCas9.
RuvC and HNH Nuclease Domains
The RuvC domain of SaCas9 has an RNase H fold, and shares structural similarity with those of SpCas9 (PDB: 4un3, 26% identity, rmsd of 2.0 A˚ for 179 equivalent Ca atoms) and AnCas9 (PDB: 4oge, 17% identity, rmsd of 3.0 A˚ for 169 equivalent Ca atoms). Asp10, Glu477, His701, and Asp704 ofSaCas9 are located at positions similar to those of the catalytic residues of SpCas9 (Asp10, Glu762, His983, and Asp986) and AnCas9 (Asp17, Glu505, His736, and Asp739). Indeed, the D10A, E477A, H701A, and D704A mutants of SaCas9 exhibited almost no DNA cleavage activity, suggesting that the SaCas9 RuvC domain
cleaves the non-target DNA strand through a two-metal ion mechanism, as in other RNase H superfamily endonucleases. The HNH domain of SaCas9 has a ββα-metal fold, and shares structural similarity with those of SpCas9 (27% identity, rmsd of 1.8 A˚ for 93 equivalent Ca atoms) and AnCas9 (18% identity, rmsd of 2.6 A˚ for 98 equivalent Ca atoms). Asp556, His557, and Asn580 of SaCas9 are located at positions similar to those of the catalytic residues of SpCas9 (Asp839, His840, and Asn863) and AnCas9 (Asp581, His582, and Asn606). Indeed, the H557A and N580A mutants of SaCas9 almost completely lacked DNA cleavage activity, suggesting that the SaCas9 HNH domain cleaves the target DNA strand through a one-metal ion mechanism, as in other ββα-metal endonucleases. A structural comparison of SaCas9 with SpCas9 and AnCas9 revealed that the RuvC and HNH domains are connected by α-helical linkers, L1 and L2, and that notable differences exist in the relative arrangements between the two nuclease domains. A biochemical study suggested that PAM duplex binding to SpCas9 facilitates the cleavage of the target DNA strand by the HNH domain. However, in the PAM-containing quaternary complex structures of SaCas9 and SpCas9, the HNH domains are distant from the cleavage site of the target DNA strand. A structural comparison of SaCas9 with Thermus thermophilus RuvC in complex with a Holliday junction substrate indicated steric clashes between the L1 linker and the modeled non-target DNA strand, bound to the active site of the SaCas9 RuvC domain. These observations suggested that the binding of the non-target DNA strand to the RuvC domain may facilitate a conformational change of L1, thereby bringing the HNH domain to the scissile phosphate group in the target DNA strand.
Structure-Guided Engineering of SaCas9 Transcription Activators and Inducible Nucleases
Using the crystal structure of SaCas9, we sought to conduct structure-guided engineering to further expand the CRISPR-Cas9 toolbox, as we have done previously using the SpCas9 crystal structure. Given the similarities in the overall domain organizations of SaCas9 and SpCas9, we initially explored the feasibility of engineering the SaCas9 sgRNA, to develop robust transcription activators. In the SpCas9 structure, the tetraloop and stem loop 2 of the sgRNA are exposed to the solvent, and permitted the insertion of RNA aptamers into the sgRNA to create robust RNA-guided transcription activators. To generate the SaCas9-based activator system, a catalytically inactive version of SaCas9 (dSaCas9) was created by introducing the D10A and N580A mutations to inactivate the RuvC and HNH domains, respectively, and attached VP64 to the C terminus of dSaCas9. The sgRNA scaffold was modified by the insertion of the MS2 aptamer stem loop (MS2-SL), to allow the recruitment of MS2-p65-HSF1 transcriptional activation modules. To evaluate the dSaCas9-based activator design, a transcriptional activation reporter system was constructed, consisting of tandem sgRNA target sites upstream of a minimal CMV promoter driving the expression of the fluorescent reporter gene mKate2. An additional transcriptional termination signal upstream of the reporter cassette was included, to reduce the background previously observed in a similar reporter. Robust activation of mKate2 transcription was observed when the engineered sgRNA complementary to the target sites was expressed, whereas the non-binding sgRNA had no detectable effect. Based on a screening of different sgRNA designs with this reporter assay, was found that the insertions of MS2-SL into the tetraloop and putative stem loop 2 induced strong activation in our reporter system, whereas the insertion of MS2-SL into stem loop 1 yielded modest activation, consistent with the structural data. The single insertion of MS2-SL into the tetraloop was the simplest design that yielded strong transcriptional activation. Using this optimal sgRNA design, we further tested the activation of endogenous targets in the human genome. Two guides were selected each for the human ASCL1 and MYOD1 genomic loci, and demonstrated that the dSaCas9-based activator system activated both genes to levels comparable to those of the dSpCas9-based activator. Given that the sgRNAs for SaCas9 and SpCas9 are not interchangeable, the SaCas9-based transcription activator platform complements the SpCas9-based activator systems, by allowing the independent activation of different sets of genes. The SpCas9 structure also facilitated the rational design of split-Cas9s, which can be further engineered into an inducible system. This SaCas9 structure revealed several flexible regions in SaCas9 that could likewise serve as potential split sites. Three versions of a split-SaCas9 were created, and two of them showed robust cleavage activity at the endogenous EMX1 target locus. Using the best split design, inducible schemes were then tested based on the abscisic acid (ABA) sensing system, as well as two versions of the rapamycin-inducible FKBP/FRB system. All three systems were able to support inducible SaCas9 cleavage activity, demonstrating the possibility of an inducible, split-SaCas9 design; however, further optimization is required to increase its efficiency and reduce its background activity.
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