| Structural highlights
Function
[ENV_HV1H2] The surface protein gp120 (SU) attaches the virus to the host lymphoid cell by binding to the primary receptor CD4. This interaction induces a structural rearrangement creating a high affinity binding site for a chemokine coreceptor like CXCR4 and/or CCR5. This peculiar 2 stage receptor-interaction strategy allows gp120 to maintain the highly conserved coreceptor-binding site in a cryptic conformation, protected from neutralizing antibodies. Since CD4 also displays a binding site for the disulfide-isomerase P4HB/PDI, a P4HB/PDI-CD4-CXCR4-gp120 complex may form. In that complex, P4HB/PDI could reach and reduce gp120 disulfide bonds, causing major conformational changes in gp120. TXN, another PDI family member could also be involved in disulfide rearrangements in Env during fusion. These changes are transmitted to the transmembrane protein gp41 and are thought to activate its fusogenic potential by unmasking its fusion peptide.[1] Surface protein gp120 (SU) may target the virus to gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) by binding host ITGA4/ITGB7 (alpha-4/beta-7 integrins), a complex that mediates T-cell migration to the GALT. Interaction between gp120 and ITGA4/ITGB7 would allow the virus to enter GALT early in the infection, infecting and killing most of GALT's resting CD4+ T-cells. This T-cell depletion is believed to be the major insult to the host immune system leading to AIDS (By similarity).[2] The surface protein gp120 is a ligand for CD209/DC-SIGN and CLEC4M/DC-SIGNR, which are respectively found on dendritic cells (DCs), and on endothelial cells of liver sinusoids and lymph node sinuses. These interactions allow capture of viral particles at mucosal surfaces by these cells and subsequent transmission to permissive cells. DCs are professional antigen presenting cells, critical for host immunity by inducing specific immune responses against a broad variety of pathogens. They act as sentinels in various tissues where they take up antigen, process it, and present it to T-cells following migration to lymphoid organs. HIV subverts the migration properties of dendritic cells to gain access to CD4+ T-cells in lymph nodes. Virus transmission to permissive T-cells occurs either in trans (without DCs infection, through viral capture and transmission), or in cis (following DCs productive infection, through the usual CD4-gp120 interaction), thereby inducing a robust infection. In trans infection, bound virions remain infectious over days and it is proposed that they are not degraded, but protected in non-lysosomal acidic organelles within the DCs close to the cell membrane thus contributing to the viral infectious potential during DCs' migration from the periphery to the lymphoid tissues. On arrival at lymphoid tissues, intact virions recycle back to DCs' cell surface allowing virus transmission to CD4+ T-cells. Virion capture also seems to lead to MHC-II-restricted viral antigen presentation, and probably to the activation of HIV-specific CD4+ cells.[3] The transmembrane protein gp41 (TM) acts as a class I viral fusion protein. Under the current model, the protein has at least 3 conformational states: pre-fusion native state, pre-hairpin intermediate state, and post-fusion hairpin state. During fusion of viral and target intracellular membranes, the coiled coil regions (heptad repeats) assume a trimer-of-hairpins structure, positioning the fusion peptide in close proximity to the C-terminal region of the ectodomain. The formation of this structure appears to drive apposition and subsequent fusion of viral and target cell membranes. Complete fusion occurs in host cell endosomes and is dynamin-dependent, however some lipid transfer might occur at the plasma membrane. The virus undergoes clathrin-dependent internalization long before endosomal fusion, thus minimizing the surface exposure of conserved viral epitopes during fusion and reducing the efficacy of inhibitors targeting these epitopes. Membranes fusion leads to delivery of the nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm.[4] The envelope glyprotein gp160 precursor down-modulates cell surface CD4 antigen by interacting with it in the endoplasmic reticulum and blocking its transport to the cell surface (By similarity).[5] The gp120-gp41 heterodimer seems to contribute to T-cell depletion during HIV-1 infection. The envelope glycoproteins expressed on the surface of infected cells induce apoptosis through an interaction with uninfected cells expressing the receptor (CD4) and the coreceptors CXCR4 or CCR5. This type of bystander killing may be obtained by at least three distinct mechanisms. First, the interaction between the 2 cells can induce cellular fusion followed by nuclear fusion within the syncytium. Syncytia are condemned to die from apoptosis. Second, the 2 interacting cells may not fuse entirely and simply exchange plasma membrane lipids, after a sort of hemifusion process, followed by rapid death. Third, it is possible that virus-infected cells, on the point of undergoing apoptosis, fuse with CD4-expressing cells, in which case apoptosis is rapidly transmitted from one cell to the other and thus occurs in a sort of contagious fashion.[6] The gp120-gp41 heterodimer allows rapid transcytosis of the virus through CD4 negative cells such as simple epithelial monolayers of the intestinal, rectal and endocervical epithelial barriers. Both gp120 and gp41 specifically recognize glycosphingolipids galactosyl-ceramide (GalCer) or 3' sulfo-galactosyl-ceramide (GalS) present in the lipid rafts structures of epithelial cells. Binding to these alternative receptors allows the rapid transcytosis of the virus through the epithelial cells. This transcytotic vesicle-mediated transport of virions from the apical side to the basolateral side of the epithelial cells does not involve infection of the cells themselves.[7]
Publication Abstract from PubMed
The membrane-proximal external region (MPER) C-terminal segment and the transmembrane domain (TMD) of gp41 are involved in HIV-1 Env glycoprotein-mediated fusion and modulation of immune responses during viral infection. However, the atomic structure of this functional region remains unsolved. Here, based on the high-resolution NMR data obtained for peptides spanning the C-terminal segment of MPER and the TMD, we report two main findings: (i) the conformational variability of the TMD helix at a membrane-buried position; and (ii) the existence of an uninterrupted alpha-helix spanning MPER and the N-terminal region of the TMD. Thus, our structural data provide evidence for the bipartite organization of TMD predicted by previous molecular dynamics simulations and functional studies, but do not support the breaking of the helix at position Lys-683, as was suggested by some models to mark the initiation of the TMD anchor. Antibody binding energetics examined with isothermal titration calorimetry, and humoral responses elicited in rabbits by peptide-based vaccines further support the relevance of a continuous MPER-TMD helix for immune recognition. We conclude that the transmembrane anchor of HIV-1 Env is composed of two distinct subdomains: 1) an immunogenic helix at the N-terminus also involved in promoting membrane fusion; and 2) an immunosuppressive helix at the C-terminus, which might also contribute to the late stages of the fusion process. The unprecedented high-resolution structural data reported here may guide future vaccine and inhibitor developments.
The Atomic Structure of the HIV-1 gp41 Transmembrane Domain and its Connection to the Inmmunogenic Membrane-proximal External Region.,Apellaniz B, Rujas E, Serrano S, Morante K, Tsumoto K, Caaveiro JM, Jimenez MA, Nieva JL J Biol Chem. 2015 Mar 18. pii: jbc.M115.644351. PMID:25787074[8]
From MEDLINE®/PubMed®, a database of the U.S. National Library of Medicine.
References
- ↑ Miyauchi K, Kim Y, Latinovic O, Morozov V, Melikyan GB. HIV enters cells via endocytosis and dynamin-dependent fusion with endosomes. Cell. 2009 May 1;137(3):433-44. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046. PMID:19410541 doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046
- ↑ Miyauchi K, Kim Y, Latinovic O, Morozov V, Melikyan GB. HIV enters cells via endocytosis and dynamin-dependent fusion with endosomes. Cell. 2009 May 1;137(3):433-44. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046. PMID:19410541 doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046
- ↑ Miyauchi K, Kim Y, Latinovic O, Morozov V, Melikyan GB. HIV enters cells via endocytosis and dynamin-dependent fusion with endosomes. Cell. 2009 May 1;137(3):433-44. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046. PMID:19410541 doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046
- ↑ Miyauchi K, Kim Y, Latinovic O, Morozov V, Melikyan GB. HIV enters cells via endocytosis and dynamin-dependent fusion with endosomes. Cell. 2009 May 1;137(3):433-44. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046. PMID:19410541 doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046
- ↑ Miyauchi K, Kim Y, Latinovic O, Morozov V, Melikyan GB. HIV enters cells via endocytosis and dynamin-dependent fusion with endosomes. Cell. 2009 May 1;137(3):433-44. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046. PMID:19410541 doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046
- ↑ Miyauchi K, Kim Y, Latinovic O, Morozov V, Melikyan GB. HIV enters cells via endocytosis and dynamin-dependent fusion with endosomes. Cell. 2009 May 1;137(3):433-44. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046. PMID:19410541 doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046
- ↑ Miyauchi K, Kim Y, Latinovic O, Morozov V, Melikyan GB. HIV enters cells via endocytosis and dynamin-dependent fusion with endosomes. Cell. 2009 May 1;137(3):433-44. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046. PMID:19410541 doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.046
- ↑ Apellaniz B, Rujas E, Serrano S, Morante K, Tsumoto K, Caaveiro JM, Jimenez MA, Nieva JL. The Atomic Structure of the HIV-1 gp41 Transmembrane Domain and its Connection to the Inmmunogenic Membrane-proximal External Region. J Biol Chem. 2015 Mar 18. pii: jbc.M115.644351. PMID:25787074 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M115.644351
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