spinqualitylabelsall models Functioning dimer of ACAT Show:Asymmetric Unit Biological Assembly Drag the structure with the mouse to rotate   Export Animated Image

Contents 1 Introduction 2 Structure 2.1 Overall Structure 2.2 Active Site/Important Residues 2.3 Dimer-Dimer Interactions 3 Proposed Mechanism 3.1 Tunnels 3.2 Allosteric Binding Pocket 4 Known Inhibitors 5 Medical Relevance

Introduction

Acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT), also known as Human Sterol O-acyltransferase (hSOAT) is an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between long chain fatty acyl CoA and intracellular cholesterol to form the more hydrophobic cholesteryl ester for cholesterol storage (Fig.1). Cholesteryl ester is the primary form of how cholesterol is stored in multiple types of cells and transported through the circulatory system. ACAT is an endoplasmic reticulum membrane protein, and ACAT is a part of the MBOAT (membrane-bound O-acyltransferase) family, which also includes acyl-coenzyme A: (DGAT) and (GOAT).^{[1] [2]}

There have been two ACAT isoforms discovered in mammals, ACAT1^[3] and ACAT2^[4], and they are predominantly located in different parts of the body. ACAT1 is mainly found in the liver, kidneys, adrenal glands and macrophages, whereas ACAT2 is found only in the intestines and liver.

Structure

Overall Structure

ACAT is a tetramer composed of a dimer of a dimer, but is able to perform its function solely as a dimer (Fig. 2). There are in each domain which create a tunnel for the active site. There are also three helices found on the intracellular side (IH1, IH2, and IH3) and one helix on the extracellular side (EH1). The active site contains three tunnels – the transmembrane tunnel for cholesterol entrance, the cytosolic tunnel for acyl-CoA entrance, and the lumen tunnel for cholesterol ester exit. ACAT also has an amino-terminal cytosolic domain (NTD) that is important for tetramerization of this protein.^[4]

Active Site/Important Residues

An important residue in the ACAT active site is His460, a Histidine, which is located where the tunnels converge. It is thought that His460 is located on TM7 (Qian et al.). When converting to a cholesteryl ester, the acts as a catalytic base that deprotonates the cholesterol. An asparagine is another important residue in the reaction that is able to form a hydrogen bond with acyl-CoA for stabilization. Additionally, a can be found in the active site of ACAT and replaced by cholesterol for synthesis of cholesteryl ester.

Dimer-Dimer Interactions

Between the two protomers in each dimer, Van der Waals interactions occur between TM1 of one protomer and the lumenal TM6 and the cytosolic TM9 of the other protomer. The two dimers make limited contact within the membrane through an interface that has in between the two protomers ^[3].

Proposed Mechanism

Due to limited high-resolution structural representations of ACAT, its mechanism remains ambiguous. However, the general mechanism involving the substrates and products of ACAT is understood^[5]. In this reaction, oleoyl-CoA and cholesterol are the reactants and they undergo the reaction catalyzed by ACAT to form cholesteryl-oleate which is used as a storage form of cholesterol. The hydroxyl group on cholesterol is deprotonated, then attacks the thioester bond of oleoyl-CoA, kicking off CoA-SH as a leaving group.

However, Qian et al.^[3] proposed a mechanism involving the important residues His460 and Asn421. In this mechanism, His460 acts as a general base to deprotonate the hydroxyl group on cholesterol, activating it as a nucleophile. Then, Asn421 possibly forms a hydrogen bond with oleoyl-CoA to stabilize the reaction (Fig. 3).

Tunnels

The nine transmembrane segments create a cytosolic tunnel and a transmembrane tunnel that meet at the site of catalysis (active site). Acyl-coenzyme A enters the active site though the cytosolic tunnel, and cholesterol enters through the transmembrane tunnel. These then meet in the catalytic site to react and form the cholesteryl ester. When exiting the catalytic site, the cholesterol ester is able to release through the to the membrane or through the lumen tunnel to the lumen, and the free CoA is able to release through the to the cytosol. Certain residues that line the transmembrane tunnel are important in ACAT activity (E259, E263, R262, P304, L306, V423, V424, M265, I261, and H460)^[3].

Allosteric Binding Pocket

ACAT molecules are enzymes that can be allosterically activated by sterol molecules like cholesterol. There are two proposed binding sites for cholesterol, with each binding site being distinctively different. One site is the substrate active site mentioned above and the other site is the allosteric binding site. The allosteric binding site has the ability to direct feedback regulation over the concentration of cholesterol in the endoplasmic reticulum.

In order to act as an allosteric activator, the sterol molecules must contain a highly conserved 3-beta hydroxyl group at the first steroid ring (ring A) ^[6] . An activator must also contain a conserved iso-octyl side chain to efficiently activate ACAT. The conserved 3-beta hydroxyl group allows for binding of the cholesterol to cause conformational changes to the ACAT dimer. Upon conformational changes, the rate of esterification is increased.

Known Inhibitors

Guan et al. has identified a small molecule inhibitor of ACAT, known as CI-976, which belongs to the fatty acyl amide analog molecule family. is a competitive inhibitor in the ACAT active site and was found to inhibit ACAT in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 5). CI-976 has a trimethoxyphenol head that interacts with the catalytic residue, His460. This head also interacts with Tyr416 and Tyr417. The long-chain tail of CI-476 also interacts with specific residues, notably Leu377 and Leu515. Overall, it was determined that because CI-976 binds in the active site, it inhibits ACAT by preventing the binding of the natural substrate into the active site^[5].

Medical Relevance

The mechanism of ACAT is essential for cholesterol storage and cholesterol transfer through the plasma because cholesteryl ester is the primary form of cholesterol used for these events. Additionally, ACAT can use a variety of different sterol molecules besides cholesterol as substrates and activators. Because of its biological importance, ACAT has been linked to atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, and cancer as a potential drug target for treatment of these diseases^[7]. Various studies have looked into ACAT inhibition and how that inhibition treats or prevents certain diseases, such as reducing the size and metastasis of certain tumors^[8] and reducing the formation of plaques in atherosclerosis^[9]. ACAT is an important target for these diseases due to its functional relevance in cholesterol metabolism.