Neuromodulators
From Proteopedia
Neuromodulation is the physiological process by which a given neuron uses one or more chemicals to regulate diverse populations of neurons. A neuromodulator can be conceptualized as a neurotransmitter that is not reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron or broken down into a metabolite. Neuromodulators typically bind to metabotropic, G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) to initiate a second messenger signaling cascade that induces a broad, long-lasting signal. This modulation can last for hundreds of milliseconds to several minutes. Some of the effects of neuromodulators include: alter intrinsic firing activity, increase or decrease voltage-dependent currents, alter synaptic efficacy, increase bursting activity and reconfiguration of synaptic connectivity. Major neuromodulators in the central nervous system include: dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, histamine, norepinephrine, nitric oxide, and several neuropeptides. Cannabinoids can also be powerful CNS neuromodulators.
AcetylcholineAcetylcholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.7, e.g. from Torpedo californica, TcAChE) hydrolysizes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine , producing group. ACh directly binds (via its nucleophilic Oγ atom) within the catalytic triad of (ACh/TcAChE structure 2ace). The residues are also important in the ligand recognition. After this binding acetylcholinesterase ACh. Acetylcholine ReceptorsNicotinic acetylcholine receptorsThe receptor is a transmembrane pentameric glycoprotein. It cylindrical in appearance by electron microscopy approximately 16nm in length and 8nm in diameter. The main ion channel is composed of a water pore that runs through the entire length of the protein. If viewed from the synaptic cleft, the protein will look like a pseudo-symmetrical rosette shown in the picture below composed of 10 different alpha and 4 different beta subunits.
When cobra venom is introduced into the body is moves along the bloodstream to a diaphragm muscle. It works as a postsynaptic neurotoxin binding to the receptor as an extracellular ligand by interacting with OH group leaving the acetylcholine channel open which releases ions used in creating an action potential. There must be 5 molecules of cobra toxin (red) to block the receptor (blue) as each molecule binds with an individual alpha chain on the acetylcholine receptor. The 2nd image depicts an individual toxin binding with one chain on the receptor, both in the same color. . This representation shows each molecule of the . Muscarinic acetylcholine receptorsM1, M3, M5 receptors are coupled with Gq proteins, while M2 and M4 receptors are coupled with Gi/o proteins. They belong to GPCRs Subfamily A18. Acetylcholinesterase
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)/Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
Adrenergic receptors in generalThe adrenergic receptors are metabolic G protein-coupled receptors. They are the targets of catecholamines. The binding of an agonist to them causes a sympathetic response.
β1 adrenergic receptor
β2 adrenergic receptor
β2-adrenergic agonists:
Beta-adrenergic receptor kinaseMonoamine oxidases (MAO)Monoamine oxidases (MAO) (EC 1.4.3.4) are a family of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines including adrenaline, noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine. Monoamine oxidaseMonoamine oxidase b | ||||||||||||
References
- ↑ Martin JL, Begun J, McLeish MJ, Caine JM, Grunewald GL. Getting the adrenaline going: crystal structure of the adrenaline-synthesizing enzyme PNMT. Structure. 2001 Oct;9(10):977-85. PMID:11591352
- ↑ Huang J, Chen S, Zhang JJ, Huang XY. Crystal structure of oligomeric beta1-adrenergic G protein-coupled receptors in ligand-free basal state. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2013 Apr;20(4):419-25. doi: 10.1038/nsmb.2504. Epub 2013 Feb, 24. PMID:23435379 doi:10.1038/nsmb.2504
